Although the techniques described apply to many types of university teaching, effective instruction cannot be defined in any absolute way. University teaching involves diverse modes of instruction, including: lectures, seminars, labs, and mentoring (e.g., thesis supervision). Disciplines, courses, and instructors also vary widely in their emphasis on such varied educational objectives as learning new knowledge, stimulating student interest, developing cognitive skills, and leading students to question established tenets. One important distinction in determining effective teaching may be the relative importance of cognitive and affective goals. That is, some qualities of teaching may be more strongly related to such cognitive objectives as developing knowledge and skills, whereas other qualities are more strongly related to such affective objectives as fostering student interest and curiosity.
Although these sources of variation preclude a single model for effective instruction, various teaching qualities nonetheless are associated with the achievement of different cognitive and affective goals and probably contribute to the quality of university teaching across a wide range of conditions. The qualities examined here have been identified by research using student evaluations, trained observers in classrooms, verbal reports by teachers and students, and the training of teachers in specific teaching skills. The qualities are also generally consistent with psychological theories about learning (e.g., the role of prior knowledge, importance of organization) and with common-sense intuitions about the qualities of effective university teachers.
The qualities of effective teaching revealed by research have been incorporated into course evaluation instruments used in North American universities. Numerous such evaluations and hundreds of items were examined by faculty members at UofW to develop our own course evaluation questionnaire, the UW-QUIQ. The resulting questionnaire samples a range of teaching activities associated with effective instruction and the achievement of cognitive and affective objectives.
A taxonomy of the clusters of items on the UW-QUIQ is presented in Box 1. The classification is rough in that some of the clusters are not very homogeneous (i.e., they include diverse teaching behaviors), some categories overlap (i.e., teaching behaviors are related to multiple objectives), and the taxonomy may not be exhaustive (i.e., certain aspects of teaching may be inadequately represented). The scheme nonetheless provides a useful, if tentative, taxonomy for thinking about the quality of university teaching. The qualities measured by the UW-QUIQ have been divided into aspects of teaching related to cognitive or affective aspects of instruction.
These qualities are described here in some detail, along with suggestions that faculty might use to strengthen their teaching performance in areas that they deem important. The suggestions are offered for consideration by faculty, recognizing that few of us can exemplify all of these attributes and that skilled teachers adapt their teaching to student interests, the subject matter, the level of course, class size, and other contextual factors that influence the effectiveness of different teaching methods or styles. The clusters and ideas are not meant to be exhaustive and should not prevent alternative methods being used by effective instructors. For example, university teachers may deliberately expose students to apparent disorganization so that students are compelled to discover their own organizational scheme and thereby strengthen higher-level cognitive skills.
Box 2 shows the UW-QUIQ items related to knowledge and appreciation aspects of teaching. These items primarily ask for student perceptions of the success with which the instructor has achieved various cognitive objectives.
Box 3 identifies some ways that teachers can promote knowledge and appreciation of the subject matter. More than other qualities of instruction, promoting these objectives requires teachers who can communicate their own knowledge and appreciation of the subject matter to students. In essence, students should feel that they have learned something valuable, and that the course has contributed to their knowledge, awareness, and intellectual curiosity. Students should also be intellectually challenged and stimulated to think for themselves, and have opportunities to develop competencies characteristic of the discipline. The higher-level objectives of developing knowledge and appreciation are also related to numerous teaching behaviors in other clusters.
Box 4 shows the UW-QUIQ items related to lesson organization. Two items ask for summary evaluations of student perceptions of the extent to which individual lessons and the overall course are well organized. A third item asks about representative techniques that instructors can use to convey the organization of lessons. Effective organization can help students to learn the material, to take effective notes, to understand their weaknesses, and to apprehend the structure of the subject. Teacher organizational schemes also provide students with models of expertise and of effective learning strategies.
Effective lesson organization depends on considerable planning in advance of the class, as well as the use of organization-related techniques during class. Box 5 shows some tips for planning organized lessons. Perhaps the most important condition for well-organized lessons is a clear and well-articulated understanding of the subject matter at a level appropriate to the students. Such understanding can take years of teaching experience to develop, especially in subjects where much of the knowledge is tacit or implicit (e.g., problem-solving).
One way to develop a lesson organization is to start with a blank page and create a semantic network for the lesson. Begin by placing the over-arching theme for that class as the central concept in the network. Lines can be used to connect the theme to sub-topics, which are in turn connected to more specific ideas (e.g., examples of general concepts). Box 6 shows an example of a partial network for the present material on effective university teaching. Ideas can be added, embellished, and re-arranged until a satisfactory structure emerges. Studies have shown that students who do well in courses have semantic networks or structures similar to those of the instructor. Some instructors also find that these organizational structures can be used to provide the class with an effective overview of the material to be covered in a lesson.
Those who find the network approach too "messy" may prefer the use of headings and sub-headings. Box 7 shows the outline of Box 6 cast in this alternative format. Wordprocessing programs (e.g., Wordperfect, Word) often have an outline feature that allows ideas to be added or moved around, even to different levels. Even if the network approach is used in planning the lesson, the heading format may be used with the class, unless you want to model for students the kinds of cognitive activities involved in organizing knowledge in your discipline.
Planning is one important step in effective organization. It is also important to communicate the organization during the lesson. Box 8 shows some techniques that can be used during lessons to communicate organization and structure to students. A lesson can be divided into three units: a beginning, a middle, and an end. The bulk of the classtime is generally spent in the middle, but the beginning and end can be very important for communicating the organization of the lesson. Beginning and ending well may be particularly important when, as is often the case in university teaching, the material will be covered over several sessions.
Faculty will need to decide how appropriate the ideas presented here are for their subject matter and for their teaching objectives. In particular, some balance may need to be struck between providing organizational details for students and giving students opportunities to discover and develop for themselves the relations among concepts. Even when independent organization is the ultimate goal, however, students who have particular difficulty grasping the organization of the material may need some initial models of the cognitive structures that underlie the course material, as well as some demonstration by the teacher of how such structures can be discovered or developed.
Box 10 lists some techniques that instructors can use to communicate the meaning of difficult concepts. Anticipating what material students will have difficulty with and developing appropriate explanations generally requires firsthand teaching experience; it is often surprising how teaching a subject reveals gaps in our own understanding of the material. Experienced teachers gradually develop a repertoire of paraphrases, metaphors, and other techniques that promote the learning of difficult concepts. As with organization, the skill of giving clear explanations requires considerable effort on the part of teachers. There is often a large gap between our own sophisticated knowledge about our subjects and the less rich knowledge that students bring to the classroom. Such techniques as those described above can help to bridge the gulf between expert faculty and novice students.
Box 12 lists some aspects of speaking clearly. Some of the ideas here and in Box 13 may suggest (wrongly) that teaching is just "acting," which is not the case. Effective speaking is important because content will not be understood unless students attend to and perceive correctly what the teacher is saying.
Instructors with effective presentation styles also communicate well nonverbally. Box 13 lists some nonverbal techniques that instructors might use to strengthen their presentations. Again, experience and familiarity with teaching will help the achievement of an appropriate teaching "style" and the identification of those methods that work for you.
Although the quality of effective presentations has been categorized in the cognitive group because of its importance for comprehension and attention, the effective use of verbal and nonverbal techniques also stimulates student interest in and excitement about the subject, decidedly affective goals to which we now turn.
Box 15 lists some ways that instructors can generate student interest and maintain attention during classes. Student attention and motivation are promoted by instructor enthusiasm and interest, as well as by capitalizing on interesting aspects of the subject matter. Some of the suggestions in Box 15 occur in other clusters. As noted previously, quality of presentation also contributes to student attention and interest (e.g., energetic and dynamic class presentations, some spontaneity in lecturing, use of humour).
Box 17 lists some ways that instructors can take the initiative in promoting student participation. The most important methods probably center around classroom questioning of individual students and of the class as a whole. How you respond to student questions will also affect the frequency with which such questions are asked in the future. You can increase the frequency of question-asking by providing useful responses and by showing approval, either implicitly by incorporating student ideas into the lesson or explicitly by verbal and other forms of praise.
Closely related to student participation is how open and receptive the instructor is to other points of view, including those offered by students. Some ways to show openness to alternative ideas are listed in Box 18.
Student participation and the expression of different points of view in a classroom seldom emerge spontaneously. Early in the term, instructors want to plan ideas and activities that will promote these important objectives.
Box 20 lists some ways to foster positive relationships with students. As with participation, the trick is to both arrange occasions when informal interactions can occur and to respond during such interactions in a manner that will encourage such behavior in the future. The objective here is not to become "friends" with students, although that might naturally occur. The real objective is to learn how students are doing and who needs help as quickly as possible.
Box 22 shows some ways that instructors can communicate effectively with students and obtain appropriate evaluation of student performance. As with other aspects of instruction, there may be occasions when these suggestions should be ignored. To develop higher-order planning skills, for example, the instructor may give students a task that is deliberately ambiguous or poorly defined. Even in such situations, however, the instructor might be explicit about the objectives of the assignment (e.g., develop problem-solving or critical-thinking skills) and the nature of the evaluation.
Encourages students to think for themselves and promotes
intellectual curiosity.
Expands students' knowledge and appreciation of the subject.
Helps students develop skills related to the course (e.g.,
critical thinking, writing, ...).
Keep up-to-date (e.g., read journals, attend conferences, do
research).
Talk about current developments.
Present origin and background of material.
Relate the subject to current events and other fields.
Present thought-provoking ideas (e.g., paradoxes, inconsistencies
between expert and lay beliefs).
Provide insights or knowledge beyond that in the text.
Present challenging questions and issues.
Illustrate unresolved questions and issues.
Model cognitive processes of experts (e.g., think out loud).
Offers well-prepared and organized classes.
Gives useful indicators for following lessons (e.g., outlines,
states objectives, reviews main points, ...).
Course elements (e.g., lectures, texts, readings, labs, ...) are
integrated to help students appreciate and learn the course
material.
Identify a theme and objectives.
Develop a plan for lesson (e.g., time, cause-effect, hierarchy,
logical).
Organize lesson as a list of points or series of questions.
Outline the structure in point-form.
Include outlines, headings, and other techniques to communicate
structure.
outline -----
| ------ Motivation
transitions --- Organization |
| | | ------- Participation
review ----------- | | |
EFFECTIVE--------Rapport
Explanation-----------TEACHING
| | |
| | ----- Communication
Knowledge--------- |
|
Presentation --
Effective Teaching
1. Cognitive
1.1 Knowledge
1.2 Organization
a. Outline
b. Transition
c. Review
1.3 Explanations
1.4 Presentation
2. Affective
2.1 Motivation
2.2 Participation
2.3 Rapport
2.4 Evaluation
BEGINNING THE LESSON
Review topics covered in previous lectures.
State major objectives.
Give preliminary overview at start of class.
DURING THE LESSON
Outline lecture on blackboard or overhead.
Distinguish topics and signal transitions.
Indicate end of sections and start of new topics, perhaps in
concert with outline.
Use explaining links (because, since, therefore) and other
organizational cues.
Avoid excessive digressions from major topics, unless educational
value warrants.
Emphasize major points in plan (e.g., pause, raise your voice,
repeat, speak slowly).
Periodically summarize previous points.
ENDING THE LESSON
Plan to close lecture effectively.
Review main topics.
Preview topics to be covered in future classes.
Provides clear explanations for concepts and principles, with
concrete examples where appropriate.
Emphasizes major or difficult points (e.g., asks if students
understand, repeats complex ideas, pauses, ...).
Use concrete, real-life, and relevant examples. Present practical applications and experiences. Use illustrations, graphs, and diagrams where appropriate. Use relevant audiovisual aids (films, tapes, maps, slides, etc.). Develop effective metaphors or analogies for difficult concepts. Suggest mnemonic aids for memorizing complicated ideas. Paraphrase technical explanations in understandable language. Define unfamiliar terms. Write key terms on the blackboard or overhead. Repeat difficult ideas in diverse ways. Speak more slowly for difficult or particularly important ideas. Ask if students understand before proceeding.
Speaks in a clear, well-paced, and expressive manner.
Uses appropriate teaching aids effectively (e.g., blackboard,
overhead projector, handouts, ...).
Speak at suitable rate, not too fast for understanding and note-
taking.
Speak loudly enough for the room.
Pronounce words distinctly.
Modulate voice; speak expressively rather than in a monotone.
Speak fluently, without excessive pauses or "ums" and "ahs."
Speak naturally without over reliance on verbatim reading
(outlines can help).
Use facial expressions (e.g., smiling, laughter), bodily
gestures, and movement.
Avoid distracting mannerisms (e.g., playing with chalk, rocking).
Make eye contact with students.
Move about the classroom, do not fix on a desk or lectern.
Display a relaxed manner.
Include humour.
Use blackboards, other audiovisual aids, and a variety of
methods.
Be enthusiastic and dynamic.
Shows enthusiasm and interest in the course. Stimulates and maintains student interest.
Describe relevant personal experiences.
State your point of view on issues.
Demonstrate interest in the subject matter and in teaching.
Present challenging and thought-provoking ideas.
Examine controversial issues.
Introduce topics in novel and interesting ways (e.g., a mystery
or paradox).
Point out practical applications and interesting examples.
Relate subject matter to current events and student interests or
activities.
Encourage new ideas from students.
Use varied activities, media, and formats (e.g., guest lecture,
panel discussions).
Encourages student participation (e.g., asks questions, responds
well to student questions or comments, ...).
Respects alternative and challenging viewpoints.
Provide opportunities for and solicit student comments and
questions.
Ask if students understand before proceeding.
Encourage quiet students (e.g., direct questions, pre-arrange
questions).
Offer challenging and thought-provoking ideas.
Plan interactive activities (e.g., small-group discussions,
student presentations, solving problems in groups).
Expect students to answer questions (e.g., wait for answer,
rephrase question, provide hints).
Show approval for student ideas (e.g., positive comments).
Answer questions in a meaningful way.
Incorporate student ideas into lessons.
Do not criticize student ideas unreasonably.
Be open to different opinions and points of view.
Let students feel free to question you, to think independently,
and to express dissenting views.
Present and explore points of view other than your own.
Be flexible in your thinking.
Contrast the implications of different theories.
Let students be creative (e.g., generate alternative
explanations).
Demonstrate and encourage original and independent thought.
Treats students with respect in and out of class. Is available for consultation outside of class time. Is sensitive to whether students understand course material.
Be reasonably available for consultation.
Talk with students before, after, and outside class.
Learn students's names (e.g., use class cards).
Show interest in how students are doing.
Show interest in students and their ideas.
Be sensitive to student progress and motivation (e.g., know when
students are having difficulty or are bored).
Show concern that students understand and learn the subject
matter.
Take action when students lose interest or have excessive
difficulty (e.g., use more examples, modify requirements?).
Make students feel welcome (e.g., announce availability for help,
be approachable).
When students seek help, be understanding, patient, helpful, and
not overly critical.
Be tolerant of other points of view.
Provide opportunities in class for questions.
Engage in give and take with students.
Show approval for student ideas (e.g., positive comments, praise,
smile, nod head).
Respect thoughts, opinions, and rights of students and others.
Provides helpful feedback (e.g., useful comments on student work,
takes up tests in class, ...).
Evaluates students fairly (e.g., tests important material; gives
reasonable work load; assigns appropriate percentages for
termwork, tests, and exams; ...).
Marks and returns work in a reasonable time.
Course objectives, assignments, and grading criteria are clear.
Prepare clear objectives for the course.
Communicate objectives, course requirements, and grading
criteria.
Reduce barriers incidental to student learning (e.g., undesired
ambiguity).
Give students sufficient information to prepare for evaluations.
Provide detailed instructions and sample questions for
evaluations where appropriate or necessary.
Perhaps remind students of dates and identify important topics
for evaluations.
Use clear and reasonable evaluations. (e.g., tests that reflect
course materials).
Grade assignments fairly and consistently across students.
Considering class size, grade work promptly and provide helpful
feedback.
Provide answers as feedback for objective assignments.
Use enough evaluations for adequate feedback and a fair measure
of student learning.
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Dressel, P. L., & Marcus, D. (1982). On Teaching and Learning in
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Note: \uw indicates library catalogue number.
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